NURSING RESEARCH & STATISTICS

Unit

Topic

Hours

I

Research and Research Process

·         Introduction and need for nursing research

·         Definition of Research & nursing research

·         Steps of scientific method

·         Characteristics of good research

·         Steps of Research process – Overview

·         Evidence Based Practice – Concept, Meaning, Purposes, Steps of EBP Process and Barriers

6(T)

II

Research Problem/Question

·         Identification of problem area

·         Problem statement

·         Criteria of a good research problem

·         Writing objectives and hypotheses

2(T)

8(P)

III

Review of Literature

·         Location 

·         Sources

·         On line search; CINHAL, COCHRANE etc.

·         Purposes

·         Method of review

2(T)

6(P)

IV

Research Approaches and Designs

·         Historical, survey and experimental

·         Qualitative and Quantitative designs

4(T)

1(P)

V

Sampling and Data Collection

·         Definition of Population, Sample

·         Sampling criteria, factors influencing sampling process, types of sampling techniques

·         Data – Why, what, from whom, when and where to collect

·         Data collection methods and instruments

• Methods of data collection

  
  

• Questioning, interviewing

  
  

• Observations, record analysis and measurement

  
  

• Types of instruments, Validity & Reliability of the Instrument

  
  

·         Research ethics

·         Pilot study

·         Data collection procedure

6(T)

6(P)

VI

Analysis of Data

·         Compilation, tabulation, classification, summarization, presentation, interpretation of data

4(T)

6(P)

VII

Introduction to Statistics

·         Definition, use of statistics, scales of measurement.

·         Frequency distribution and graphical presentation of data

·         Mean, Median, Mode, Standard deviation

·         Normal Probability and tests of significance

·         Co-efficient of correlation

·         Statistical packages and its application

12(T)

8(P)

VIII

Communication and Utilization of Research

·         Communication of research findings

·         Verbal report

·         Writing research report

·         Writing scientific article/paper

·         Critical review of published research including publication ethics

·         Utilization of research findings

·         Conducting group research project

4(T)

5(P)

Unit 1: Research and Research Process

1.1.

Research

15

1.2.

Nursing Research

17

1.2.1.

Introduction and Definitions of  Nursing Research

17

1.2.2.

Historical Evolution of Nursing Research in India

18

1.2.3.

Characteristics of Nursing Research

21

1.2.4.

Need for Nursing Research

22

1.2.5.

Purposes of Nursing Research

23

1.2.6.

Importance of Nursing Research

24

1.2.7.

Role of a Nurse in Research

24

1.2.8.

Scope of Nursing Research

25

1.3.

Scientific Method

27

1.3.1.

Introduction

27

1.3.2.

Characteristics of Scientific Method

27

1.3.3.

Steps of Scientific Method

28

1.3.4.

Limitations of Scientific Method

28

1.4.

Research Process

29

1.4.1.

Introduction

29

1.4.2.

Basic Research Terminologies

29

1.4.3.

Quantitative Research Process

30

1.4.4.

Qualitative Research Process

35

1.5.

Evidence Based Practice

38

1.5.1.

Concept and Meaning of EBP

38

1.5.2.

Definitions of EBP

39

1.5.3.

History of EBP

39

1.5.4.

Characteristics of EBP

40

1.5.5.

Purposes of EBP

40

1.5.6.

Steps of EBP Process

40

1.5.7.

Benefits of EBP in Nursing

42

1.5.8.

Barriers of EBP Process

42

1.6.

Exercise

43

Unit 2: Research Problem Question

2.1.

Research Problem

45

2.1.1.

Introduction

45

2.1.2.

Components of Research Problem

45

2.1.3.

Sources of Research Problem

46

2.1.4.

Criteria of a Good Research Problem

46

2.1.5.

Steps in Formulation of Research Problem

48

2.1.6.

Identification of Problem Area

50

2.1.7.

Problem Statement

50

2.1.8.

Research Question

51

2.1.9.

Evaluating Research Problem

52

2.2.

Research Objectives

54

2.2.1.

Introduction

54

2.2.2.

Purposes of Research Objectives

54

2.2.3.

Characteristics of Research Objectives

54

2.2.4.

Types of Research Objectives

55

2.2.5.

Significance of Research Objectives

55

2.2.6.

Writing Research Objectives

56

2.3.

Hypotheses

57

2.3.1.

Introduction and Definitions of Hypothesis

57

2.3.2.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

58

2.3.3.

Purposes of Hypotheses in Research

58

2.3.4.

Sources of Hypothesis

59

2.3.5.

Types of Hypotheses

59

2.3.6.

Writing Hypotheses

61

2.3.7.

Importance of Hypothesis

61

2.4.

Exercise

62

Unit 3: Review of Literature

3.1.

Review of Literature

64

3.1.1.

Introduction and Definitions of Literature Review

64

3.1.2.

Purposes of Literature Review

65

3.1.3.

Factors Affecting Literature Review

65

3.1.4.

Location of Literature Review

66

3.1.5.

Types of Literature Review

66

3.1.6.

Sources of Literature Review

67

3.1.7.

Online Sources

71

3.1.8.

Criteria for Selection of Sources

73

3.1.9.

Steps in Writing Literature Review

74

3.1.10.

Points to be Considered while Writing the Review

77

3.1.11.

Methods of Literature Review

78

3.1.12.

General Guidelines for Reviewing the Literature

79

3.1.13.

Importance of Literature Review

79

3.2.

Exercise

80

Unit 4: Research Approaches and Designs

4.1.

Research Design

82

4.1.1.

Meaning and Definitions of Research Design

82

4.1.2.

Need of Research Design

83

4.1.3.

Characteristics of Good Research Design

83

4.1.4.

Elements of Research Design

84

4.1.5.

Process of Research Design

84

4.1.6.

Factors Affecting Selection of Research Design

86

4.1.7.

Types of Research Design

87

4.2.

Quantitative Research Design

87

4.2.1.

Introduction

87

4.2.2.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

87

4.2.3.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

88

4.2.4.

Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

88

4.2.5.

Types of Quantitative Research Approaches

88

4.2.6.

Experimental Research Design

89

4.2.7.

Non-Experimental Research Design

96

4.2.8.

Other Research Designs

106

4.3.

Qualitative Research Design

107

4.3.1.

Introduction

107

4.3.2.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design

108

4.3.3.

Types of Qualitative Research Designs

108

4.3.4.

Techniques of Collecting Qualitative Data

118

4.3.5.

Importance of Qualitative Research Design

119

4.3.6.

Advantages of Qualitative Research Design

119

4.3.7.

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research Design

119

4.4.

Exercise

120

Unit 5: Sampling and Data Collection

5.1.

Population

123

5.2.

Sample

125

5.3.

Sampling

127

5.3.1.

Definition of Sampling

127

5.3.2.

Meaning of Sampling

128

5.3.3.

Characteristics of Sampling

128

5.3.4.

Purposes of Sampling

128

5.3.5.

Importance of Sampling

129

5.3.6.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling

129

5.3.7.

Sampling Criteria

129

5.3.8.

Sampling Process

129

5.3.9.

Factors Influencing Sampling Process

131

5.3.10.

Types of Sampling Techniques

132

5.3.11.

Probability Sampling Method

132

5.3.12.

Non-Probability Sampling Method

141

5.3.13.

Sampling Error

146

5.4.

Data - Why, What, From Whom, When and Where to Collect

147

5.5.

Scales of Measurement

149

5.6.

Data Collection Methods and Instruments

151

5.6.1.

Introduction

151

5.6.2.

Selection of Methods of Data Collection

152

5.6.3.

Criteria of Evaluation/Assessment of Data Collection Methods

152

5.6.4.

Questioning or Questionnaire Method

152

5.6.5.

Interviewing

162

5.6.6.

Observations

168

5.6.7.

Record Analysis

173

5.6.8.

Types of Instruments

175

5.6.8.1.

Rating Scale

175

5.6.8.2.

Likert Scale

176

5.6.8.3.

Semantic Differential Scale

178

5.6.8.4.

Visual Analogue Scale

179

5.6.8.5.

Checklist

180

5.6.9.

Validity of the Instrument

180

5.6.10.

Reliability of the Instrument

183

5.7.

Research Ethics

186

5.7.1.

Introduction

186

5.7.2.

Principles of Ethics

186

5.7.2.1.

Principle of Beneficence

187

5.7.2.2.

Principle of Respect for Human Dignity

187

5.7.2.3.

Principle of Justice

187

5.7.3.

Ethical Issues in Research

188

5.7.3.1.

Plagiarism Check/Plagiarism

188

5.7.3.2.

Citation Styles

189

5.7.3.3.

Reproducibility/Reproduction of Published Material

190

5.7.3.4.

Acknowledgement

190

5.7.3.5.

Accountability

191

5.7.4.

Importance of Ethics in Research

191

5.8.

Pilot Study

192

5.8.1.

Introduction and Definitions

192

5.8.2.

Purposes of Pilot Study

192

5.8.3.

Reasons for Conducting Pilot Study

193

5.8.4.

Components of a Pilot Study

193

5.8.5.

Conducting a Pilot Study

194

5.8.6.

Importance of Pilot Study in Research

194

5.8.7.

Advantages of a Pilot Study

195

5.8.8.

Disadvantages of a Pilot Study

195

5.8.9.

Problems of Pilot Study

195

5.9.

Data Collection Procedure

196

5.10.

Exercise

197

Unit 6: Analysis of Data

6.1.

Data Analysis

201

6.1.1.

Definition

201

6.1.2.

Objectives of Data Analysis

201

6.1.3.

Types of Data Analysis

201

6.1.4.

Process of Data Analysis

202

6.2.

Compilation of Data

203

6.2.1.

Introduction

203

6.2.2.

Types of Information Included in the Compiled Data

203

6.2.3.

Process of Compilation of Data

203

6.2.4.

Importance of Compilation of Data

204

6.2.5.

Challenges and Risks Associated with Compilation of Data

205

6.3.

Tabulation (Tabular Representation) of Data)

206

6.3.1.

Introduction

206

6.3.2.

Basic Principles for Tabulation of Data

206

6.3.3.

Rules and Guidelines for Tabular Presentation

207

6.3.4.

Types of Tables

207

6.3.5.

Importance of Tabulation of Data

210

6.4.

Classification of Data

211

6.4.1.

Introduction and Definitions

211

6.4.2.

Characteristics of Classification

211

6.4.3.

Objectives of Classification

211

6.4.4.

Classification of Data

211

6.4.4.1.

Quantitative Classification

212

6.4.4.2.

Qualitative Classification

212

6.4.4.3.

Discrete Data

213

6.4.4.4.

Continuous Data

213

6.4.4.5.

Chronological Classification

214

6.4.4.6.

Geographical Classification

214

6.4.4.7.

Primary Data

215

6.4.4.8.

Secondary Data

215

6.4.4.9.

Grouped and Ungrouped Data

215

6.5.

Summarization of Data

216

6.5.1.

Introduction

216

6.5.2.

Role of Summarization of Data

216

6.5.3.

Taxonomy of Data Summarization

216

6.5.4.

Challenges in Summarization of Data

217

6.6.

Presentation of Data

217

6.6.1.

Introduction

217

6.6.2.

Principles of Presentation

218

6.6.3.

Types of Data Presentation

218

6.7.

Interpretation of Data

221

6.7.1.

Introduction

221

6.7.2.

Need of Interpretation of Data

222

6.7.3.

Process of Interpretation of Data

222

6.7.4.

Techniques of Interpretation of Data

223

6.8.

Exercise

224

Unit 7: Introduction to Statistics

7.1.

Statistics

226

7.1.1.

Meaning

226

7.1.2.

Definition

226

7.1.2.1.

Statistics as Statistical Data

226

7.1.2.2.

Statistics as Statistical Methods

227

7.1.3.

Types of Statistics

227

7.1.4.

Scale of Measurements

228

7.1.5.

Use of Statistics

229

7.2.

Frequency Distribution

230

7.2.1.

Introduction

230

7.2.2.

Formation of Frequency Distribution/Types of Frequency Distribution

230

7.2.2.1.

Discrete or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

230

7.2.2.2.

Continuous or Grouped Frequency Distribution

231

7.2.2.3.

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

234

7.3.

Graphical Presentation of Data

236

7.3.1.

Introduction

236

7.3.2.

Types of Graphical Presentation

236

7.3.2.1.

Line Diagram

236

7.3.2.2.

Bar Diagrams

237

7.3.2.3.

Pie Diagram

240

7.3.2.4.

Histogram

241

7.3.2.5.

Frequency Polygon

242

7.3.2.6.

Frequency Curve

243

7.3.2.7.

Ogives or Cumulative Frequency Curves

244

7.3.3.

Advantages of Graphical Presentation

245

7.3.4.

Disadvantages of Graphical Presentation

245

7.4.

Measures of Central Tendency

246

7.4.1.

Mean/Arithmetic Mean

246

7.4.1.1.

Advantages of Mean

246

7.4.1.2.

Disadvantages of Mean

246

7.4.1.3.

Method of Calculation of Simple Arithmetic Mean

247

7.4.2.

Median

250

7.4.2.1.

Advantages of Median

250

7.4.2.2.

Disadvantages of Median

251

7.4.2.3.

Method of Calculation of Median

251

7.4.3.

Mode

255

7.4.3.1.

Advantages of Mode

255

7.4.3.2.

Disadvantages of Mode

255

7.4.3.3.

Methods of Calculation of Mode

255

7.4.4.

Empirical Relation between Mean, Median and Mode

257

7.4.5.

Comparison of Mean, Median and Mode

258

7.5.

Measurement of Dispersion

258

7.5.1.

Introduction

258

7.5.2.

Methods of Measuring Dispersion

258

7.5.3.

Standard Deviation (S.D.)

258

7.5.3.1.

Calculation of Standard Deviation – Individual Series

259

7.5.3.2.

Calculation of Standard Deviation – Discrete Series (Ungrouped Data)

259

7.5.3.3.

Calculation of Standard Deviation – Continuous Series (Grouped Data)

260

7.6.

Normal Probability Distribution

261

7.6.1.

Introduction

261

7.6.2.

Normal Probability Curve

261

7.6.3.

Standard Normal Distribution

261

7.6.4.

Fitting a Normal Curve

262

7.7.

Test of Significance

266

7.7.1.

Introduction

266

7.7.2.

Null Hypothesis

267

7.7.3.

Alternative Hypothesis

267

7.7.4.

Errors in Hypothesis Testing

267

7.7.5.

Level of Significance

268

7.7.6.

Degree of Freedom

268

7.7.7.

p-Value

268

7.7.8.

Tests of Hypothesis

268

7.7.8.1.

T–test

268

7.7.8.2.

F-Test

269

7.7.8.3.

Z-test

271

7.7.8.4.

Chi-Square Test

273

7.8.

Correlation

274

7.8.1.

Meaning

274

7.8.2.

Types of Correlation

274

7.8.3.

Coefficient of Correlation

275

7.8.4.

Measures of Correlation

276

7.8.4.1.

Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

276

7.8.4.2.

Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient

277

7.9.

Statistical Packages and Its Application

280

7.10.

Exercise

282

Unit 8: Communication and Utilization of Research

8.1.

Communication of Research Findings

290

8.1.1.

Introduction

290

8.1.2.

Purposes of Communication of Research Findings

290

8.1.3.

Criteria for Communication of Research Findings

290

8.1.4.

Steps of Communication of Research Findings

291

8.1.5.

Methods of Communication of Research

291

8.2.

Verbal Report/Oral Presentation

292

8.2.1.

Introduction

292

8.2.2.

Purposes of Verbal Report/Oral Presentation

292

8.2.3.

Guidelines for Effective Oral/Verbal Presentation

292

8.2.4.

Elements of Verbal Presentation

294

8.2.4.1.

Presenter/Speaker

294

8.2.4.2.

Specific Content with a Definite Objective

295

8.2.4.3.

Audience

295

8.2.5.

Making Presentation

296

8.2.5.1.

Planning the Presentation

296

8.2.5.2.

Preparing for Presentation

296

8.2.5.3.

Organising the Presentation

296

8.2.5.4.

Rehearsing the Presentation

297

8.2.5.5.

Delivering the Presentation

297

8.2.5.6.

Handling Questions

297

8.2.6.

Medium of Presentation

298

8.2.7.

Importance of Effective Communication

299

8.3.

Poster Presentation

300

8.3.1.

Introduction

300

8.3.2.

Guidelines for Preparing a Poster

301

8.3.3.

Points to Remember in Poster Presentation

301

8.4.

Writing Research Report

301

8.4.1.

Introduction

301

8.4.2.

Characteristics of a Research Report

302

8.4.3.

Steps in Writing a Research Report

303

8.4.4.

Organisation of a Research Report

304

8.4.4.1.

The Preliminary/Introductory Section

305

8.4.4.2.

Body of the Report

306

8.4.4.3.

The Reference Section

309

8.4.5.

Significance of Writing Research Report

309

8.5.

Writing Scientific Article/Paper

310

8.5.1.

Introduction

310

8.5.2.

General Rules for Writing Scientific Article/Paper

310

8.5.3.

Structure and Components of Scientific Article/Paper

310

8.6.

Critical Review of Published Research

312

8.6.1.

Introduction

312

8.6.2.

Purposes of Critical Review of Published Research

313

8.6.3.

Guidelines for Writing a Research Critique

313

8.6.4.

Critique of the Study

313

8.6.5.

Publication Ethics

317

8.7.

Utilization of Research Findings

320

8.7.1.

Introduction

320

8.7.2.

Research Utilization Model

320

8.7.3.

Barriers to Research Utilization

321

8.7.4.

Strategies to Facilitate Utilization of Nursing Research

322

8.8.

Conducting Group Research Project

323

8.9.

Exercise

324